Lesson 27
IMAGERY
Conceptual Models for Studying Imagery 📘
Imagery has both a cognitive 🧩 and a motivational 🔥 function. The cognitive function of imagery is the use of mental imagery 🧠🎥 to experience specific sport skills 🏀⚽ and to plan strategies 📋 in advance of competition 🏆. The motivational function of imagery is the use of imagery to experience goal attainment 🎯, effective coping 💪, and arousal management 😌⚡. One function is primarily cognitive 🧠, while the other is primarily emotional ❤️.
Paivio's Two-Dimensional Model 📊
Paivio conceptualized the practice of imagery to be either situation specific 🎯 or general 🌍 in nature. Thus, Paivio's conceptual model of imagery is two dimensional 📐 in nature. As revised by Hall (1998) and measured by the SIQ 📝, Paivio's two dimensional model for imagery has five independent uses:
I. Motivational-Specific (MS) 🔥🎯
In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself in a specific setting 🏟️ that is highly motivation 🔥. For example, the athlete might herself making the winning basket 🏀 in an important basketball game 🏆.
II. Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) 💪🧠
In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines himself in a general sport situation 🏃♂️ exhibiting the ability to remain focused 👀. For example, the athlete might imagine himself thinking positive thoughts 😊 every time he comes to bat 🏏 during an important game 🏆.
III. Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A) 😌⚡
In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself in a general sport situation 🏟️ exhibiting the ability to control anxiety 😰➡️😌. For example, the athlete might imagine using deep breathing 🌬️ to stay relaxed during a tennis match 🎾.
IV. Cognitive Specific (CS) 🧠🎯
In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself correctly executing a specific sport skill 🏌️♀️ during competition 🏆. For example, the athlete might imagine chipping a ball onto the green ⛳ in a golf tournament 🏌️.
V. Cognitive General (CG) 🧠📋
In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines himself reviewing team defensive strategies 🛡️ in volleyball 🏐. For example, he might imagine the team shifting the defensive formation 🔄 to defend against a quick attack ⚡ from the middle.
The Four Ws of Imagery Use ❓❓❓❓
According to Munroe, & others (2000), the four Ws of imagery use are where 📍, when ⏰, why ❓, and what 🖼️. With this in mind, the where of imagery use is during training 🏋️ or competition 🏆, with research suggesting that most takes place during competition 🏟️.
The when of imagery use refers to when imagery is used ⏰ within training 🏋️ or competition 🏆. Relative to training, imagery takes place during practice 🏃♀️ and outside of practice 🧠. Relative to competition, imagery takes place before ⏮️, during ▶️, and after ⏭️ competition, with most of it taking place before competition in the form of mental rehearsal 🎥🧠.
The why of imagery use refers to the function of imagery 🎯. An athlete engages in imagery in order to invoke either cognitive 🧠 or motivational 🔥 changes. The what of imagery use refers to the content or quality 🖼️✨ of the images that the athlete has.
Developing Imagery Skills 🛠️🧠
Detailed practical suggestions for helping athletes 🏃♂️ to improve and develop imagery skills 🧠 are provided by Vealey and Greenleaf (2001). A sample six-step program to enhance imagery ability is provided below:
- Find a quiet place 🤫 where you will not be disturbed 🚫, assume a comfortable position 🪑, and relax completely 😌 before beginning. Deep breathing 🌬️ and progressive relaxation 🧘 is a suggested way to achieve the relaxed state 😌.
- Practice imagery by visualizing a colored circle 🔵 that fills the visual field 👁️ initially and then shrink to a dot ⚫ and disappear. Make the circle turn a deep blue 🔵.
- Create the image of a simple three-dimensional glass 🥛. Fill the glass with a colorful liquid 🌈; add ice cubes 🧊 and a straw 🥤. Write a descriptive caption 📝 underneath the image 🖼️.
- Select a variety of scenes 🎬 and images 🖼️ and develop them with rich detail ✨.
- Imagine yourself in a sport setting 🏟️ of your choice. Project yourself into the image 🧠 as if you were one of the performers 🏃♀️. Imagine yourself successfully performing the task ✅ in the scene 🎬.
- End the session by breathing deeply 🌬️, opening your eyes 👀, and slowly adjusting to the external environment 🌍.
Cognitive-behavioral interventions using imagery and relaxation 🧠😌
Research has demonstrated 📊 that individualized packaged intervention programs 🎁 are more effective ✅ that nonindividuallized programs ❌ in which participants select their own strategies. Athletes 🏃 benefit most from intervention strategies 🛠️ that are designed to fit their needs 🎯 and are presented in a systematic 🗂️ and organized fashion 📋.
Three cognitive-behavioral intervention programs 📘 to be introduced in this section include Visual Motor Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR) 🎥, Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 💉, and Stress Management Training (SMT) 🧘.
1. Visual Motor Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR) 🎥🧠
Visual motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) was developed by Suinn (1972, 1994) as an adaptation 🔄 of Wolpe's (1958) desensitization procedure 🧘 for humans. His particular methods of training consisted of:
- Relaxing the athlete's body 😌 by means of a brief version of Jacobson's progressive relaxation techniques 🧘
- Practicing imagery 🧠🎥 related to the demands of the athlete's sport 🏀⚽
- Using imagery to practice a specific skill 🎯 in a lifelike stressful environment 😰
VMBR combines relaxation 😌 and imagery 🧠 into one procedure 🔗. Numerous investigations 📊 have been reported that demonstrate that VMBR is effective ✅ in enhancing athletic performance 🏆, as well as in reducing the debilitating effects ❌ of overarousal ⚡ and state anxiety 😰.
2. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 💉🧠
Stress inoculation training (SIT) is a cognitive-behavioral programs 📘 developed by Meichenbaum (1977, 1985) that incorporates relaxation training 😌, imagery 🧠, and other cognitive processes 🧩 into a single plan 📋.
Threatening situations 😨 are presented through imagery 🧠, films 🎥, role playing 🎭, and real-life situations 🌍. For example, if the fear of competition 🏆 is stressful 😰, the athlete is allowed to experience both imagined 🧠 and real competitive situations 🏟️. As soon as the athlete is able to cope 💪 with a low level of stress 😌, the situation is changed 🔄, and a more stressful situation 😰 is presented, in this way, the athlete becomes inoculated 💉 against progressively increased levels of stress 📈. Eventually, the athlete's fear of competition 😨 is minimized ⬇️ to such a degree that he can cope with it 💪.
Research with SIT in athletic situations 🏃 has demonstrated its effectiveness ✅ in reducing stress 😌 (Hamilton & Leith, 1993)
3. Stress Management Training (SMT) 🧘🧠
Stress management training (SMT) is a cognitive- behavioral intervention program 📘 developed by Smith (1980) that incorporates relaxation training 😌, imagery 🧠, and other cognitive processes 🧩. The athlete 🏃 is taught to understand the nature of stress 🤯 generally, and to understand the source of her stress specifically 🎯.
The athlete learns and practices integrated coping responses 💪 which are reduced by the subject through the application of cooping responses learned during skill acquisition 🎓.
Research supports the use of SMT ✅ for reducing stress 😌 and for enhancing athletic performance 🏆 (Crocker, 1989)
References 📚
Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies
Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004). Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers